Análisis estilístico y léxico del latín de Dante Alighieri

Análisis estilístico y léxico del latín de Dante Alighieri 

(Aprenda el latín con el profesor Dante)

Aunque Dante no se destacó tanto con sus habilidades en lengua latina, todavía resulta muy interesante y aprovechoso leer su De Vulgari Eloquentia en su latín original, orgánico y corrompido a la vez. Me sirvió la nueva edición (2018) de Cátedra, (Letras Universales), Raffaele Pinto traductor, corrección de María de las Nieves Muñiz Muñiz. En esta obra de Dante, declara que ya era tiempo escribir en italiano, y no en latín. Y para realizar este emprendimiento, necesitaba una variedad «ilustre» de italiano, y va analizando los varios dilectos e idiomas itálicos del país. En fin, todavía hay muchos trucos por aprender del maestro, y espero que les resulte estimulante este pequeño glosario, con traducciones al castellano. Vale.

Léxico general

abmotim[que]. adv.  separados y lejos. En IX, 10: «Necesse est ut disiunctim  abmotimque morantibus varie varietur». “es necesario que,  para los que viven separados y lejos, se transforme de modo diverso”.

advena, advene. extranjero.

allubescens [adlubescens]. con gusto, gratamente.

ammicterent [ammicto *]. ¿derivado de amictus [cubierto, velado]? Lib I, XIII, 6: «quod si per oblivionem Ianuenses ammicterent z licteram, vel mutire totaliter eos, vel novam reparare oporteret loquelam». Que si por un olvido los genoveses perdieran la letra z, deberían enmudecer por completo, o bien reconstruirse una nueva lengua.

aporior, aporiare[1]. esforzarse.

ascisco, asciscere. recibir, atribuir, arrogar. Lib II, X, 5: «et considera cuius rei causa largum arbitrium usus sibi asciverit». Y considera la causa por la que se les had dado tanta libertad.

assuefiunt [assuēfaciō]. aprender, acostumbrarse.

astripetus, astripetam. ?

astructum [astruo]. construir, acumular, demostrar. Lib II, VI, 1: «ut superius est astructum». Tal como demostré arriba.  

aurentium, aurientes[2].  haurientes.

avietum[3] (avieo). autorizado, establecido, deducido. Lib. II I: «Sed quia ipsum prosaycantes ab avientibus magis accipiunt, et quia quod avietum est prosaycantibus permanere videtur exemplar, et no e converso».  Pero, ya que los prosistas, en la mayoría de los casos, reciben de los poetas, y lo que los poetas establecen permanece como modelo ejemplar para los prosistas, y no viceversa[4].

balteatus. vestido con el bálteo, cinturón militar que se usaba antiguamente. Lib II, I, 9: « Et ubi dicitur quod quilibet suos versus exornare debet in quantum potest, verum esse testamur; sed nec bovem epiphiatum, nec balteatum suem dicemus ornatum, ymo potius deturpatum ridemus illum». Y donde se dice que todos deben ornar sus versos lo más posible, lo confirmo; pero no por ello admitiremos que un buey se adorne como un caballo, o que un puerco se engalane, antes bien nos reíamos de tales torpezas.  

callide. adv. con atención, con esmero, diligentemente. Lib II, II, 7: «Sed disserendum est, que maxima sint. Et primo in eo quod est utile: in quo, si callide consideremus intentum omnium querentium utilitatem, nil aliud quam salutem inveniemus». Conviene pues definir ahora los temas que son de la importancia máxima. Y antes que nada, respecto a lo útil: si consideramos con atención el objetivo de todos los que buscan lo útil, descubrimos que no es otra cosa que la salud.

celitus. adv. del cielo, de lo alto del cielo.

compages. f. conjunto. Lib II, IX, 3: «Per quod patet quod ipsa de qua loquimur erit congremiatio sive compages omnium eorum que cantio sumit ab arte». Por ello es evidente que aquello de lo que estamos hablando será el regazo incluyente, u orgánico conjunto, de todo lo que la técnica compositiva proporciona a la canción.

conicio. adivinar, creer, suponer. VII, 8: «sicut conicio». según creo, a mi parecer.

cribellum. tamiz, criba, [tb. cribar].

cubo, cubare. reclinarse, dormir, yacer, estar enfermo.

diffinientia[5]. f. definición. Lib II, X, 1: «nunc diffinientia suam diffiniens sub compendio ventilemus».

divarico. difundir, distribuir, distinguir.

dolatus. alisado. Lib, II, VII, 5: «dolata quasi». Casi alisados.

epiphiatus (derivado de ἵππος “caballo”, y el sufijo -atus). equino, encaballado. Lib II, I, 9:«sed nec bovem epiphiatum, nec balteatum suem dicemus ornatum, immo potius deturpatum ridemus illum». Pero no por ello admitiremos que un buey se adorne como un caballo, o que un puerco se engalane, antes bien nos reíamos de tales torpezas.

ergasterium. fábrica, usina.

erunco. arrancar, extirpar. Lib I, XI, 5: «Post quos Mediolanenses atque Pergameos eorumque finitimos eruncemus, in quorum etiam improperium quendam cecinesse recolimus». Después de estos, extirpamos a los milaneses, a los bergamascos y a sus vecinos, contra los cuales recuerdo que alguien hizo una canción que empieza:.

existat [existo]. cult. fuera, ser.

expresse [aut expressi]. haber plasmado, exprimido.  

fascio. atar. Lib II, VIII, 1: «Preparatis fustibus torquibusque ad fascem, nunc fasciandi tempus incumbit». Preparados ya los arbustos y las cuerdas por el haz, es tiempo de atarlo.  

figurate. adv. figurativamente, de manera figurada.

foret (sum). esset, sería.

fortassis[6]. tal vez, quizás.

frutex. matorral.    

fulcio. apoyar, tener respaldo de, disponer de. en Lib. I, IX,9 : «cum inquirere intendamus de hiis in quibus nullius autoritate fulcimur». “puesto que intento inquirir de estas [cuestiones] in las cuales no me dispongo de ninguna autoridad”.

grandines [grando]. granizos, granizo. 

gremium. regazo.

grossitie [grossitia][7]. f. pesadez.

grundo, grundare[8]. (Derivado del latín grunda, y el verbo it. grondare, “verter”). verter, canalizar.

hucúsque. adv. hasta aquel momento, hasta entonces.

indiguisse [indigeo]. necesitar, desear.  

ingremio. acoger. Lib II, IX, 2: « Nam, quemadmodum cantio est gremium totius sententie, sic stantia totam artem ingremiat;». En efecto, del mismo modo que la canción es el regazo que acoge todo el contenido conceptual, así la estancia acoge dentro de sí toda la técnica poética.  

inscius. ignorante, no consciente, solo.

irretio. atrapar, enredar.

mediastinum. ciudadano.

meditullium. Lib I, XIV, 3: «Hoc Romandiolos omnes habet, et presertim Forlivienses, quorum civitas, licet novissima sit, meditullium tamen esse videtur totius provincie». Este idioma lo tienen todos los de Romaña, y especialmente los de Forlì, cuyo ordenamiento ciudadano, aunque sea muy reciente, constituye el centro político de la región entera.

membratim. adv. en su conjunto y partes, parte por parte, pieza por pieza.

meta. f. limítrofe.

necquicquam (tb. nequiquam). adv. en balde, sin justificación.

nitantur [nitor].  se esfuerzan, esforzarse.

oretenus [ore tenus]. en persona, oralmente. Lib II, XIII, 5: «Sicut fuit Gottus Mantuanus, qui suas multas et bonas cantiones nobis oretenus intimavit». Como Gotto Mantuano, que me recitó oralmente sus muchas y buenas canciones.

pergō. continuar, proceder.

pervius. despejado, traversable, penetrable.

pica. f. garza, pega.

póculum. vaso para beber algo, póculo.

poita⃰[9]. [com]puesta, aplicada. «nihil aliud est quam fictio rethorica musicaque po[s]ita». [La poesía] no es otra cosa que una ficción/invención que está compuesta junto con los preceptos de la retórica y la música.

pr[a]ebere (pr[a]ebeo). demostrar, indicar. Lib II, I: «que quendam videntur prebere primatum».  Lo que parece indicar cierta primacía [de los poetas].

preterire (pretéreo).  desentender, omitir, ignorar, hacer caso omiso de.

prevaricatio. f.  violación, prevaricación.

prolatio. f. pronunciación.

qualiter. adv. cómo.

reburrus. desgreñado, despeinado.

reor, reri, ratus. estimar, juzgar, calcular, pensar.

repedo, repedare. volver, tornar.

sciscitans [scīscitor]. respondiendo, interrogando. «Evam, cum dyabolo sciscitanti respondit:». “Eva, cuando le respondió al diablo que le interrogaba”.

scutica. f. látigo.

seligo, seligere. elegir, escoger, encontrar.

sentis. f. zarza, planta de espinas.

singulus (1ª/2ª decl.). cada. Lib I, VII, 7: «puta cunctis architectoribus una, cunctis saxa volventibus una, cunctis ea parantibus una; et sic de singulis operantibus accidit». Por ejemplo, una lengua para todos los arquitectos, otra para los que empujaban las rocas, otra para los que las cuadraban, y así sucesivamente para cada grupo de trabajadores.

sirma. f. [dal lat. syrma, gr. σύρμα «strascico», der. di σύρω «strascicare»]. – La seconda parte della strofa nella canzone, collegata con la prima parte, o fronte, da un verso chiamato chiave; è per lo più divisa in due volte (v. volta¹, n. 2 h), di uguale numero di versi ciascuna. Il termine è stato anche usato per indicare la seconda parte del sonetto (le due terzine), e la volta della ballata.

stillicidium. fuentes subterráneas para el agua.

sus, suem. puerco. Lib II, I, 9: «sed nec bovem epiphiatum, nec balteatum suem dicemus ornatum, immo potius deturpatum ridemus illum». Pero no decimos que sean ornados un buey con riendas de cabello, ni un puerco blandiendo un bálteo, más bien nos reíamos de aquellas deformaciones.

tanquam. adv. como (en la manera de).

titubo. dudar, vacilar, titubear.

tonitruum. trueno.

torquis (gen. torquis). f. cuerda, collar hecho de metal, gargantilla.  

trulla. f. llana, trulla.

undique. adv. ?

utrinque [tb. tutrimque]. adv. de todos lados, de un lado a otro.

ymbricia. ¿imbrex, émbrice?

«Trucos» de Dante,  o sea, frases verbales, locuciones, vocabulario particular, conectores, etc.

“ad exaceranda”. para colar.

“ad habitum”. en realidad.

“alia x, alia x”. algunas x, otras x. Lib. I, VI, 3: «alia congrua est, alia vero incongrua». Algunas son correctas, otras incorrectas.

“alter alteri”. uno al otro, recíprocamente.

“alterum alterum”. uno hacia el otro. («alterum alterum introire») “nadie puede entender al otro”[10]. “the entering of one into another”, “entrar uno al pensamiento del otro”.

“causa quare”. el motivo en el que, razón por la cual. Lib I, XV, 4: «Et hec est causa quare Ferrariensium, Mutinensium, vel Regianorum nullum invenimus poetasse». Este es el motivo por el que no encuentro a nadie que haya sido poeta entre ferrareses, modeneses y parmenses.

“celeriter actendentes”. para decirlo más brevemente, digo brevemente.

“e converso.” vicerversa. . . Lib. II I: «Sed quia ipsum prosaycantes ab avientibus magis accipiunt, et quia quod avietum est prosaycantibus permanere videtur exemplar, et no e converso».  Pero, ya que los prosistas, en la mayoría de los casos, reciben de los poetas, y lo que los poetas establecen permanece como modelo ejemplar para los prosistas, y no viceversa.

enucleo, enucleare. explicar, manifestar, enuclear.

“errore confossus”. sumido en el error, sometido por el error. Lib I, XIV, 6: « Veneti quoque nec sese investigati vulgaris honore dignantur; et si quis eorum, errore confossus, vanitaret in hoc, recordetur si unquam dixit: Per le plage di Dio tu no veras».  

“fere semper”. casi siempre. Lib II, XIII, 11: «In versibus quoque fere semper hac lege perfruimur:». En las vueltas también se observa casi siempre la misma regla:.

“et hinc penitus”. y de ahí con certeza. and henceforth.

gerundio. el uso del gerundio, en el latín medieval, ya tenía un matiz de expresar el tiempo pasado. En II VI, «Et si obiciátur de serpente loquente», lit. y si objetara de la serpiente habladora. Sin embargo, convendría traducir la oración como, “si me objetara lo de la serpiente que habló”[11].

“hiis proinde visis”. Visto esto, esto cubierto. Lib. II, II, 9. «Hiis proinde visis, que canenda sint vulgari altissimo innotescunt». Por todo lo dicho, queda claro cuáles son las cosas que deben ser tratadas con el vulgar más alto.

hipérbaton[12]. Dante emplea esta figura retórica con frecuencia, como en I, 5: «nostra est intentio», es mi intención, o sea, «est nostra intentio». y como en III, 3: «sensuale quid est», es algo sensual, el orden en un latín menos culto sería: «est quid sensuale»[13]. Y en : «Et si dicatur quod pice adhuc et alie aves locuntur». Id est: «Et si dicatur quod adhuc pice et alie aves locuntur,».  «y si se dijera que todavía hablan las garzas y otros pájaros,».

“immo potius”. más bien. Lib II, I, 9: «sed nec bovem epiphiatum, nec balteatum suem dicemus ornatum, immo potius deturpatum ridemus illum». Pero no decimos que sean ornados un buey con riendas de cabello, ni un puerco blandiendo un bálteo, más bien nos reíamos de aquellas deformaciones.

“inferius instruendum relinquimus”. lo dejamos/dejo para después, lo trataré después. Lib II, VII, 7: «Quomodo autem pexis yrsuta [sic] huiusmodi sint armonizanda per metra, inferius instruendum relinquimus ». De qué manera armonizarse métricamente los vocablos hirsutos con los peinados lo dejo para después.

“in toto”. en total. Lib II, XI, 8: «Quandoque pedes a sirmate superantur in toto, ut in illa quam diximus». A veces los pies son superados in toto por la sirma, como en la canción que escribí.

“in promptu”. sin duda, a mano, preparado, de antemano.  

ydemptitas[14]. f. identitas. identidad.

lítotes. El empleo de una unidad sintáctica expresada en negativo para plasmar un positivo acentuado. En lib. II, VI, 7: «Nec non alios qui sunt usati altissimas prosas», “y otros que han usado la prosa más elevada”.  Aquí, emplea «nec non» [lit. “y no no”] para decir, “y”. 

“minime licéret”. no sería posible. Lib II, IX, 5: «minime liceret». No sería posible.

“multi multis”. lit. muchos a muchos; “todos recíprocamente”, “todos a cada uno”.

“nec propter hoc”. no debido a esto.

“ne forte”. si no + subjunt. En Lib. I. IV, 2: «ne forte moriamur». si no [queremos] morir.

“non aliter”. si no fuera así, no siendo así.

“non nisi”. sólo, si no.

“ullo modo”. en modo alguno, en ningún modo.

“per consequens”. por consiguiente.

”per huiusmodi exempla”. a través de tales ejemplos.

“pre aliis”. mayor que los demás, mayor que todos.

“pre cunctis” [prae cunctis]. de todos, más que todos los otros.

prelibatus. sobredicho.

pre[-]scio. pre-saber, saber de antemano.

“primo et ante omnia”. antes de cualquier cosa, first and foremost.

“propter quod”. por esa razón, por eso, por ese motivo.

“prout [X], prout [X]”. tanto [X] como [X].

“puta”. (de putare). por ejemplo, verbigracia, considérese.

“quantum ad” +acus. respecto a, en cuanto a. V,2: «Quod idem est quantum ad Deum», “que es lo mismo respecto a Dios”.

“quia non aliter”. porque si no fuera así. Lib. II, XI, 13: «quia non aliter cantus repetitio fieri non potest». Porque si no fuera así, la melodía no podría repetirse.

“quid ni?” ¿por qué no?

“quandoque x quandoque x”. a veces x, a veces x. Lib. II, XIV, 2: «quandoque persuasorie, quandoque dissuasorie». a veces para persuadir, otras para disuadir.

“quilibet de quolibet”. adv. fras. cada uno.  

“quodam modo”. en cierto modo, de cierta manera.

“quod procul dubio nostro iudicio sic esse censemus”. Lo que pienso con mi ingenio sin duda, que pienso sin duda.

“quot quot” [tb. quotquot]. cuanto, cuantas. Lib. I, VII, 7: «Quot quot autem exercitii varietates tendebant ad opus, tot tot ydiomatibus tunc genus humanum disiungitur». “Cuantas eran las variedades del trabajo, tantas fueron las lenguas en las que el género humano quedó divido”.

“redeuntes igitur ad propositum”. volviendo [entonces] a nuestro propósito, volviendo al tema principal.

reversio. vean anástrofe.

”sed hoc ulterius elicidandum maneat”. pero hablaré de esto en otro lugar, pero esto permanecerá por elucidar en otro lugar.

“sub compendio”. en breve, brevemente. Lib II, X, 1: «nunc diffinientia suam diffiniens sub compendio ventilemus».

“tot tot”. tantos, tantas. Lib. I, VII, 7: «Quot quot autem exercitii varietates tendebant ad opus, tot tot ydiomatibus tunc genus humanum disiungitur». “Cuantas eran las variedades del trabajo, tantas fueron las lenguas en las que el género humano quedó divido”.

“tum quia… tum quia”. ya sea porque... ya sea porque; puesto que… y puesto que.  

“ut et[15]”. porque.

                                      Apéndice: vocabulario verbal básico de Dante

carare. faltar.

concrepo. corresponder. Lib II, XIII, 10: «puta si extreme desinentie trimetri, hoc est prima et ultima, concrepabunt in primo pede, sic secundi extremas desinentias convenit concrepare;». Por ejemplo, si las desinencias de un pie de tres versos, o sea la primera o la última, se corresponden en el primer pie, deben corresponderse también en el segundo.

consto.

distermino.

indigeo. necesitar, faltar. Lib I, II, 3: «nullo signo locutionis indiguisse videntur».  No tenían necesidad de ningún signo lingüístico.

ingremio. acoger.

reor. juzgar, pensar. I, IX, 7: «Nec dubitandum reor modo in eo quod diximus “temporum”, sed potius opinamur tenendum:». No creo que se pueda poner en duda lo que acabo de decir acerca de “los tiempos”, y que debe ser reafirmado:.

venor. indagar, escrutar; cazar. Lib I, VI, 1: «de ydiomate illo venari nos decet quo vir sine matre, vir sine lacte, qui nec pupillarem etatem nec vidit adultam, creditur usus». Tenemos ahora que indagar cuál fue la lengua que usó el hombre que no tuvo madre ni fue amamantado, que no poseyó edad pueril ni edad adulta.

Citas seleccionadas

«Quot quot autem exercitii varietates tendebant ad opus, tot tot ydiomatibus tunc genus humanum disiungitur; et quanto excellentius exercebant, tanto rudius nunc barbariusque locuntur». Lib I, VII.

“Cuantas eran las variedades de trabajo, tantas fueron las lenguas en las que el género humano quedó dividido; y cuanto más excelente era el trabajo de cada cual, tanto más bárbaro y salvaje fue su modo de hablar”.

«Quanto longiora tempora variatio rei ad perpendi requirit, tanto rem illam stabiliorem putamus». Lib I, IX, 8.

“Cuanto más tiempo se necesita para percibir la variación de una cosa, tanto más estable nos parece esta cosa”.

«Quare hec tria, salus videlicet, venus et virtus, apparent esse illa magnalia que sint maxime pertractanda, hoc est ea que maxime sunt ad ista, ut armorum probitas, amoris accensio et directio voluntatis».  Lib II, II, 7.

Por todo ello, estos tres temas, la salud, el amor y la virtud, resultan ser los grandes temas que deben ser tratados de la manera más digna, o más exactamente, aquellas cosas que les conciernen por encima de todas las demás, es decir el valor de las armas, la pasión de amor y el control moral de la voluntad.

«et si anseres natura vel desidia sunt, nolint astripetam aquilam imitari». Lib. II, IV, 11.

Si por naturaleza o por su pereza son patos, no presumen de imitar al águila, que vuela hacia las estrellas.

«Et circa hoc sciendum est quod hoc vocabulum per solius artis respectum inventum est, videlicet ut in quo tota cantionis ars esset contenta, illud diceretur stantia, hoc est mansio capax, sive receptaculum, totius artis». Lib. II, IX, 2.

A este propósito, conviene saber que la palabra fue inventada exclusivamente en relación con el arte poético, dando pues a aquello que compendia el arte de la canción el nombre de «estancia», es decir la vasta mansión o receptáculo que contiene la totalidad del arte.

---

[1] «aporiavimus», como está escrita en el texto, no es la flexión verbal correcta de aporior, sino «aporiatus sumus».

[2] aurientes: haurientes.

[3] es un hápax dentro del cánon literario dantesco en latín.

[4] Traducción Raffaele Pinto.

[5] vocablo poco común en general.

[6] Dante prefiere emplear esta forma que la otra, más clásica, «fortasse».

[7] Un vocablo sumamente medieval, no figura en los textos del latín clásico.

[8] Verbo no presente en la literatura medieval, así que lo más probable es que Dante latinizó el verbo toscano «grondare», que tiene el significado de “verter”. Es otro ejemplo del latín brusco de Dante.

[9] error tipográfico muy común en las ediciones de De Vulgari Eloquentia. Léanse, «posita», puesta. Si no es error tipográfico, puede devenir de un verbo dudoso «poire», derivado del griego «poesis» un verbo capaz activo en el romance culto del tiempo de Dante, o acuñado por él mismo. Siguiendo el principio de parsimonia, parece más coherente la lectura «posita».

[10] Traducción de Raffaele Pinto, corrección, María de las Nieves Muñiz Muñiz, De Vulgari Eloquentia [Sobre la elocuencia en lengua vulgar], Cátedra, 2018.

[11] ídem.

[12] La definición de hipérbaton de Quintiliano en sus «Institutionae» es así: «Verum id cum in duobus verbis fit, anastrophe dicitur, reversio quaedam, qualia sunt vulgo «mecum», «secum», apud oratores et historicos «quibus de rebus». At cum decoris gratia traicitur longius verbum, proprie hyperbati tenet nomen: «animadverti, iudices, omnem accusatoris orationem in duas divisam esse partis». Nam «in duas partis divisam esse» rectum erat, sed durum et incomptum». [En rigor, cuando se hace una inversión [del orden] de dos palabras, se llama anástrofe, como en las voces frecuentemente usadas «mecum» (conmigo), «secum» (consigo) o según el uso de los oradores e historiadores, cuando dicen «quibus de rebus» . Y cuando, para que haya gracia, se saca una palabra de su posición habitual, propiamente dicho tiene el nombre de hipérbaton, por ejemplo: «animadverti, iudices, omnem accusatoris orationem in duas divisam esse partis» (nótense, jueces, que fue dividida en dos partes toda la oración del acusador). Pues decir «in duas partis divisam esse» (que fue dividida en dos partes) fue correcto, pero duro y poco refinado].

[13] esta frase también podría calificarse como un ejemplo de anástrofe o «reversio», es decir, la inversión total de los elementos sintácticos.

[14] La ortografía notablemente corrompida de esta palabra latina, escrita con una i griega, fue lamentablemente en boga durante el tiempo de Dante, ya que aparece tal cual en varios otros textos más o menos coetáneos a Dante, como en los escritos de Roger Bacon. 

[15] la adición de «et» es un pleonasmo/polisíndeton, es decir, no tiene significación de “y”, pero sí, modifica el significado de “ut”; ya no significa “para que”, sino “porque”.  

Miguel de Fuenllana- Orfénica Lira, English translation of the introduction

Miguel de Fuenllana occupies an important place in the annals of classical guitar technique.
His book Orfénica Lira, makes the first mention of playing single notes with the index and middle fingers respectively. It also makes probably the first reference to string muting with the right hand in guitar/vihuela music publications. On top of that, his opinions on the importance of dedicated study not only of the instrument, but also of the fundamentals of musical harmony and counterpoint, make for very interesting reading in and of itself.
 The translation presented here pretends to serve musicians interested in reading Fuenllana's views on music and the vihuela in English. It most surely is not perfect, but I enjoyed the process of trying to "bridge the gap" as it were, bringing a 16th Castillian musician into the 21st century, albeit with varying degrees of success.
The Spanish original of the introduction or essay, has been transcribed by myself and is available on this blog, containing explicatory notes in Spanish.

Miguel de Fuenllana Introduction from his vihuela book, Orphic Lyre. A new translation by Ricardo Aurelio Pollard.

[Dedication to Prince Phillip]

To a most high and powerful lord

T

here is a saying written in the book of Job, that man is born more for experiencing the roughness of work, than living entombed in his idleness[1]. Since grinning and agreeing with this doctrine, I chose among the arts the one most proportioned towards my inclination, that being music: in whose occupation [and] with continuous study, I have spent the most part of my life. And although the Divine Good/Grace, by its own unseen judgement, since my infancy, saw it fit to deprive me of bodily vision[2], his greatness did not allow for my efforts to remain without fruit, as in this aspect he wished to communicate to me this talent.

Said talent being his gift and bestowed [upon me] from his generosity, it seemed to me that I shouldn’t allow it to remain hidden, as with it I could serve those [individuals] who do appreciate this occupation: in giving birth to this work, the fruits of my labour. It seemed to me that I dedicate it and offer it to your Majesty, so that with such splendid favour it should be as like a throne certain of complete emulation. And thus I supplicate to you, Your Majesty, that thou may receive and have favour upon it, gazing more upon the spirit in which it is offered upon thee, [rather] than upon the being that gave way to the work [itself].

Prologue to the Reader

I

f among the ancient and great men it were a praiseworthy custom, prudent reader, to deal with arduous things, that not being sure of the force of their understanding, nor in what they could attain by themselves, that they endeavoured to invoke celestial succour. Then it is with even greater cause than them I should do as they did, in order to discuss such an elevated science as is music. Not begging for help coming from mount Parnassus: nor from the Pegasean fountain, [the help that those] who remained seated in the shade of death asked for. But raising the orbs of the soul to an even higher elevated mount,  that is the triumphant Jerusalem, where the courtesans of the Lord dwell: imploring the highest goodness of the life-giving spirit who wished to descend upon the apostolic school (Pentecost) in tongues of fire. So that my [endeavour] may provoke a tiny spark to explain what in my opinion he thought well to be understood from this inestimable faculty.

To whom not without less cause, for the multitude of its subtleties: the title of dialectic may be placed upon it: calling itself the art of arts and science of sciences. Whose definition ―as the divine Isidore affirms― is as a science of harmony which consists of not only the senses, but of singing as well, like the glorious Augustine expressed. And in kind, it seems to me that, due to its great difficulty, that of everything they wrote regarding its excellences, it was [indeed] the least that could have been written about it, because it exceeds human effort.   

And it was not necessary for such a notorious thing, to concern itself [only] with the estimation in which the great princes had for it. Because considering that through it, one is serving God in the heavens: who shall be so unbeknownst that he shouldn’t wish to rejoice upon the earth. The glorious saints enjoyed it most: these are the ones who said the nicest things about it. And many employed their exercises in understanding and taking delight in the suavity of this science: and in wanting to teach it to others: as it would seem to be the case for the many books that were produced on it.

The blessed Augustine and Severinus seemed to have open the path for others, [but] so as to not repeat their feats, I [only] want to touch upon it briefly and bring to mind its inventors; which would seem to achieve another degree of prolixity [in the context of this introduction][3]. Because there is no one who would ignore what is divulged through such authentic scriptures. But since Tubal would have been its first inventor, as the holy scripture tells us: or Pythagoras, as a plethora of Greeks believe, all of which does nothing for our purpose[s] nor in continuing to ascertain this, shall one receive detriment. Others, moved by different causes believe that Lino and Amphion were its origin: it’s no great thing depriving them [of the honour] and bestowing it upon Apollo. It is sufficient [to say] that being an action full of virtue it is held to be true, that without him [Apollo], there would be no perfect discipline like the ancient wise men wished. One thing must be said and that cannot be denied: that he was not his lover[:] by a just ruling deserves that no one be his [lover]. Because something that with which God is so greatly served: the reason is that with it, it should keep men happy, for being so qualified, that even the machine of heaven and earth did not want to leave it its most potent artifice without this admirable concordance: as the holy writers give certain testimony to this.

And the royal prophet, not lacking this information: forces us to feel what she/it felt: persuading us that the exaltations  that we had to give to the Lord should be expressed on to Him with the sweetness of the vihuela. Said vihuela, placed in his hands, was enough to expel daemons. And he/it would not be subject to reprehension, since before myself, others have done it. Benefiting myself from the stories of the great musician Orpheus, that later it transpired that: with the suavity of his vihuela, Pluto’s ministers brought an end to his justice. To whose imitation and memory it seemed convincible to name this work Orphic Lyre. Not because one should think that this similarity to myself may be linked to a drop of vain haughtiness: but whatever the case may be regarding the inventors and father since antiquity of this art, imitating him by name: may I be of help in sustaining his immortal fame.

Since the famous poet Juan de Mena in his Coronation never stopped evoking this Lyre[4]: many examples which we possess in the Christian faith, of which authorities abound in praising them, there is no shortage of faith in believing them. Our Redeemer did not wish to be reborn in the earth without the sweetness of above having been manifested to him. And in the Athenian Academies this art was held in such high esteem, that he who did not know how play the [Lyre] and how to sing, however gifted he may have been in letter, was despised without [knowing the art of] music.   

Themistocles bore witness to an embarrassing fall from grace: for whose cause the philosopher Socrates learned in old age what he didn’t in juvenility. And the powerful Hero, as Petrarch tells us[5], in the midst of the torments of death that he complained about, that he didn’t cause as much of a fuss over a dead than as to be at a loss of a great musician.

And although the effects of this admirable faculty are many, their differences are only three, according to the divine Isidore[6]. The first one is harmonic, which lies in the singing of voices. The second organic, which only consists of the [faculty] of breathing. The third is rhythmic, which from the playing of the fingers receives the numbers. And although all the three musical parts [should be] so agreeable and consonant to human nature: this [human nature] is what above all has pride of place, by the touch that is made with the living spirit, as it is with the vihuela, and by the proportion and conformity that the human voice possesses.

And therefore its perfections is greater, because it has strings, which in Latin is called chorde[7]. And although the word is Greek, I should like to [expound] its Latin origin which comes from cor, which means heart. Because just as the pulse of that member most subtle and generous is located in the chest, the playing of thereof is in the vihuela: and for being adorned with so many facets and superlatives, and considered of such difficulty [to play] they meditate truly upon it, which easily could remain without me[8].  Because the fruit of a long life’s work, is not attained without trading in ones health. Notwithstanding, many contradictions that I was seeing be so difficult: or its secrets denied to human debility. Because according to theory and practice I knew this instrument to be more subject to will of he who knows, [more] than anyone else: due to its harmony and composition, which creates many effects, and within the most generous hearts it finds its dwelling, as the writers tell [us]. Which if moves some to profane joy, and others to devote pleasure. Which raises and elevates men of nurtured humans en celestial contemplation. Which, from a closed chest takes out the pious tears which stream down the face. Who will be able to say that, which is often seen through experience?

What kernels so ferrous, that their glorified suavity should convert them not into blandness? So enduring its dominance, that there be not an age, nor dignity that could deny it its sway. It stops rage in its tracks, multiplies harmony: it is destroyer of vices, cause of praiseworthy customs: it brushes away incumbencies [and] inflames heroic spirits to mighty things. Even the Saracen Avicenna knew of its propert[ies], saying that it mitigates all pain[9]. And the cause of (gentle reader) such painful fatigues, watching the nights [pass by] and not sleeping for days, mainly being in this corporeal tenebrosity[10], in which the Lord wished to place me in, was in order to serve him with the same gift received from his long hand, bestowing upon him praise for what he did for me: and to incite others to wish to do the same: pushing myself to serve those who wish to practice this faculty.

Because, in accordance with the evangelic law: He who reaps not profit from his talent, does surely deserve his due punishment[11]. Since he is of little avail to the Republic, he who keeps his treasure hidden in the ark. And moved by this benign will and no small charity, I wished to compose this work: and [whilst] collecting the flowers, create this delectable panel[12], whereof is hung out by all, and many plunder, dividing it into six parts, thusly.

In the first part there are duets[13], music in three voices by good composers, and my own fantasies in three voices, in the key of each composition, which is apt for beginners, may it serve as their ABC/starting point. In the second, motets by excellent composers are arranged for four voices, and [paired] with each one of them is a fantasy of my own in four voices in the same key as the motet. In the third there are motets for five to six voices, music of the greatest difficulty and which demands more study than the last [part]. And with this, anyone shall be able to play well, if he really wishes to work [at it].

And with the precedent [given] he should be well served/have benefited thereof, because all of that which is tabulated out on paper has been played out many times on the vihuela. And there is not one thing in this book which has not first been played on the vihuela before being put into tablature. For with this certitude, I’ve taken this intrepidity in putting down the difficulties that are contained wherein. In the fourth part there is music which is more domestic and for the development of the hands; and these are compositions in three to four voices. In the fifth, you will find very gallant music, also for the development of the hands, whose concert will be found in the index, and later on it becomes more detailed/ in depth. In the sixth part three ensaladas are arranged, La Bomba, La Justa and El Iubilate[14]: with some composed music and fantasies of my own for five course vihuela, together with music and fantasies for the four course vihuela, which they call guitar: and other works in counterpoint, and the eight modes with some guidelines and consonances and a motet which brings an end to the book. according to the index of each book, which will be known more completely, as I have already said.

I predisposed myself to give this order, because he who should wish to follow it may ascend up through the grades to the most difficult [pieces] to play, which was what spurred me on, and what I wished for most, and what I pretend [to do here]. And if I have put one or two difficult things [in this book], believing that I step beyond the limits of possibility: I beseech to this individual that the time that he should waste in doubting, he spend it studying. And thusly, giving oneself over to study, that he have faith, that he will achieve the desired end.

End of Prologue

Here follows the guidelines and documents that

are contained within this book.

Since many guidelines of great usefulness and merit for the music of this instrument (the vihuela) have been provided by excellent writers, [together] with other specified things, which are required for an understanding of it: I will not refrain from saying that which presents itself to me in this [matter], motived by a zealousness to serve: at the same time [also wishing] to give guidelines for the symbols and peculiarities that are contained within this book. 

And as proof of my intention I wanted mainly to take into account three or four things that I think to treat of, [within which] all of the guidelines that are placed in this book are included. That is, composed music and my own fantasies, and manner that must be employed in order to make better use of the redoble[15], and plucking cleanly: also the time will come to discuss the modes. Arriving then to discuss composed music, I mean that in all these works in three to four voices, in five to six, with all the others that are contained within the book (except duets) it was my intention to provided them with lyrics, because it seemed to me that lyrics are the soul of any given composition, since although any work consisting of very good music, deprived of the lyrics seems to lack true spirit.

On that account, as has been said, I was prompted to provide them [i.e. the lyrics], and to signal [which] one of the voices which would be most agreeable to sing, which is that of the coloured note[16]. Now, taking this symbol into consideration, and those which will be placed subsequently, he who truly wishes to work at it, without doubt one will take pleasure from this skill, which is singing a voicing of the composition that you should play. And in order to more sincerely achieve [this], one must take note of the stems [17]which are written as semibreves, o minims with or without dotted notes. Whether it be the start of the bar or during it. I mean, that with the total value of said figure or figures the voice must be singing, so as to not be lacking in consonance until another coloured number appears, with which, one must [then] change [the note]. And this will be understood if there be no breathing [marks] or fermata present [in the bar]. Also because in a few composed works a high voice is put down as an organum [18] so that if one errs, he may easily go back and correct the one who is playing and the one singing: a tablature symbol is intermittently placed, starting from one, two, three, etc.

And wherever this symbol should appear, one must unite the voice with the instrument, so as to proceed what is played and sung, and the symbol appears thusly:  

Likewise, one must take note, that always when any note value like a minim or a semi-minim be present, all the note values that follow it must be of the same value, until a different one occur. Furthermore, there are a few composed works, which at the start or end of them a given part or strophe/fragment must be played twice: and so as to have awareness of this, [this] symbol is placed at the capo or coda of the thing to be played:  starting from the bar that it is placed in, to then finish in another [bar] where there be another similar one [so placed]. In addition,, in the pieces [comprised] of five to six voices, occasionally the course will have a split fingering, and this to maintain the essence of the composition, for this instrument although more perfect than all others, does not tolerate strenuous things[19], and in not using unrelated consonances, I wished to take this measure to divide the string thusly:  Let us give an example as if a consonance were to appear, say this one: the fourth string open, the third string on the third fret, the second string also on the third and the first string on the second fret[20]. These represent four voices, yet fretting one of [the notes] on the third string on the third fret as has been said, the one that is played open will serve as the mi[21], or re; and the one that is fretted will be sol, or fa, according to the key that one is playing [in], and thusly there will be a consonance of five voices. This may also be done with other consonances that call for this remedy, like when the second fret of the fifth course [is played], and both the forth and third courses open: here the third fret of the second course must be split, the first one will serve as the fa, which is the one that is fretted; the other, re, which represents the eighth fret of the fifth course.

And in this way five to six voices are played, as long as similar consonances are present, and the true essence of the composition is being maintained. And if anyone should think this an overly difficult endeavour, he will have as his answer that, with familiarity and true study anything is possible(.)(comma in original) And the sign which is place over the fret that is to be divided, is this one , together with the example that I have already provided. Furthermore, one will have taken note, that often the lyrics are repeated, and for this the same sign that is often placed with the organum is placed, and it is this one:  In addition one must take note, that in any beginning of a composition or fantasy you come across this letter, F, you will understand that such a work is simple[22], and in the piece where a D may be seen, there is difficulty. This will be understood in all of the compositions and fantasies, which are contained within the book, thusly: that in the compositions for four voices the aforementioned signs are employed, in the simple and difficult [pieces]: likewise in the compositions for five to six voices. But everything [i.e. every piece] must be taken level by level, since it is clear, that there will be more difficulty present in the pieces for five to six voices than in the ones of four.

In such a case it is expedient, that with prudence, each individual should chose the music that their hands may be able to play. This symbol is not placed in duets, nor in compositions in three voices, since these are in essence  [are] easy, (text very illegible here) music for beginners. And this prompted me to place them at the start of this book so that one may proceed grade by grade, familiarizing himself with the music therein, according to the ability and dexterity that each one (student) should possess. The aforementioned order has been outlined already in the prologue, and will be explained in more detail later on.

¶ Regarding the rhythms that are to be played in these compositions, I only wish to say, that each player must confine himself to the disposition of his hands, and to the difficulty of the piece, as he who should have difficulties with them has licence to play with more liberty and skill, any given piece, though it be difficult.

And he who may not possess such dexterity of the hands must play with a slow rhythm[23], especially in the beginning [of ones studies], until understanding is had, of the composition that is played through plucking cleanly, and the essence of the composition maintained. And so thus, those who have hands, just as those lacking them, it seems to me that any composition that one may play, whether easy or difficult, one must choose the mid-point: I mean, that the rhythm be not too fast, nor too slow.

¶ Further of note is, that in a few compositions, and fantasies, the sixth string is dropped one note down from the note from which it is tuned to. [This can be represented by the note] an octave higher than the open forth course, with which one intones. It is a good way of playing, having knowledge of the fretboard, because one can benefit from a few notes played as open courses, which is the best [kind of note] that this instrument has[24].  When said pieces or fantasies present themselves, one must take note [of it] at the start of them.

I do not on all occasions place glosas [25]in the composed pieces because I am not of the opinion that glosas nor redobles do not blur the essence/identity of the composition, as we shall see that a few people, content only with their own opinion, works of very good composers that were written with excellent artifice and good spirit, [when] placed in their hands are recomposed, adding to them I don’t know what sort of redobles, ordered according to their own fancy.  I mean that if they weren’t clausulas[26], or [were] in the time that the said composition occur, one must not. in any other way, blemish the piece with these same glosas or redobles and as I have said, for reason of which I mention here; I do not place them in the pieces contained in these books: save during a clausula, or in the places where the composition demands it, as will be seen in the pieces themselves.   

¶ Also the key in which one is to sing in is indicated by the coloured note, for he should have cognizance of the sol-fa, of which I will say: they are not employed in the motets and works from outside Spain, since the easy and well-known [pieces] have little need of this symbol.

On [the books’] order and the fantasies that are contained within this book

I have made them known as much as I could, [both] the symbols and peculiarities which are present in the composed works. Arriving then, to discuss the fantasies that are contained within this book, I will be obligated to go back and make a passing mention to the order that is contained within [the book] since I had mentioned it in the prologue. And so it follows that this book is divided into six parts: in the first part it seemed to me [appropriate] to include duets, and compositions in three voices, and together with each one of them a fantasy of my own in three voices, in the key that the [previous] composition is in, having due regard to two things[;] The first, that this music so [apt] for beginners, that it may be taken as their ABC [in music]. The second, that he who be not so inclined to put work into the playing of the composed works, will find fantasies agreeable to the ear, and [in order] to better train the hands. Although my opinion on this is, that to anyone who wishes to learn music verily, that he put work into studying, and transcribe composed [vocal] works[27] since from theses the true fruit is extracted. And should the fantasies that I put in this book possess some fragrance of “composition”, I can confess to have scented the cause: having seen and transcribed many pieces by excellent composers[28].

¶ In the second book there are motets in four voices, and together with each one of them, a fantasy of my own, following (as has been said) the key of the motet that precedes it. In the pieces contained in this second part, there is greater difficulty [in playing them]: but he who works with diligence and good study, having benefited from the first part [of the book]: will, with ease, be able to dominate those pieces which are present in the second book through his own will. Particularly, the fantasies contained in the second part are of great benefit to developing the hands, and for playing music with a pleasant sound to it.

¶ In the third, there are motets in five to six voices, music of excellent composition and consonance, those who were great extensive in [both] study and learning, will be able to take pleasure in its greatness: and those, who with curiosity, willing themselves to acquire true excellence and perfection on this instrument, wish to seize the fruit from the top of the palm tree. 

¶ In the fourth book there are contrapuntal works on a few plainchant [melodies] in a few mass settings, and fantasies of great benefit for the development of the hands, a few are easy for those look for them, which will be recognised by the symbol which has been mentioned above[29]. There are also Fauxbourdons, together with other composed works. ¶ In the fifth there are strambots, madrigals, sonnets in the Tuscan language[30] and our own: villanescas [31] and villancicos in three to four voices, music certainly worthy of thorough study, since not only is it of benefit for gallant and pleasant sounding playing, but furthermore to acquire the true artifice of composition: since any music from abroad brings this benefit with it. There are also some old romances, so as not to incur a disservice to those who are lovers of this delight. In the sixth and final part there are three ensaladas, Justa, Bomba, and Iubilate, together with some fantasies and composed works for the five course vihuela, to same for the guitar[32]. Admiration for these compositions cannot be denied, since without a doubt these ensaladas possess excellent lyrics and singularity in [their] composition. A good example of this will be he who puts in the work in freely taking delight in this melange. The fantasies from one instrument to another, I believe to be of benefit for aficionados[33] of it, as time goes by one may say if they truly worked on studying them. Other fantasies and contrapuntal pieces, with a few guidelines and tientos [34]for the eight modes are contained in this sixth part, with [these] and with a motet of my own, composed in admiration and praise of our Lord, finish the book, referring the rest to the index, which from the six parts of the book is put in its place.

On redobles

W

e have discussed the compositions and fantasies. It would be reasonable to deal with the third thing above mentioned, which is what concerns redobles, and plucking cleanly, which is in no way less essential than the other things. Arriving then, to discuss the manner of redobles, I find no more than three ways, which are often played on this instrument, the vihuela. The first way is, a redoble that is commonly called dedillo[35]. The second, dos dedos (two fingers), playing with the thumb and index finger is understood.

The third is with two of the four fingers (index and middle finger) of the right hand. In what pertains to the redoble named dedillo, I can confirm it to be easy and agreeable to the ear, but its imperfection cannot be denied, since one of the outstanding qualities that this instrument has is the strike with which the finger plucks the string. And since in this kind of redoble, the finger, on striking the string with the plucking motion, when it finishes [the motion] one can’t avoid having plucked with the nail[36], and this is an imperfection, [equally] for the tip [of the finger] not being uniform, as for not producing a complete nor true stroke.

And it is here where those who practice redoble with the nail find ease in what they do, but not perfection. And this which I mention here is not to condemn any given method of playing, since I consider it to be good, what the wise and cognoscenti do in music, and they should approve [as such]. I only wish to say that there is a good and better [way]: and with this intention I will try to discuss what follows. And it is so, that the second method of redoble, that of the thumb and index finger, I judge to be very good: because in and of itself it contains perfection, in having the [bass] strings closer to the thumb, which must be made use of, I mean the sixth, fifth and fourth courses. And furthermore since the aforementioned strings are thicker and of greater body than those that follow them, there is a necessity for the redoble to be more complete, and of greater force. Since he who should make use of it with ease, shall be able to make avail of it upon all of the strings. As we know foreigners [living in Spain] do[37].

Arriving at the third method of redoble, which is done with the first two fingers of the four, of the right hand I mean, this method of redoble which has such a fine quality, that I dare to say, that within it consists all perfection that any given method of redoble could ever possess, as much in speed, as in clarity, since being so perfect what is plucked with it, as has been said, the pluck on the string with this stroke has an excellent quality, without making contact with the nail nor any other sort of intervention, since it is just the [flesh of the] finger, just as in a real life object consists the true spirit, which is often achieved plucking the string [in this way].

[May it have pleased] our Lord that which I mention here, concerning this method of redoble, be of some benefit, so that a few [students] may through honest study wish to practice it: since without doubt experience will teach them to understand and believe in the aforementioned, and much more.

And since my wish does not seem to have been fulfilled, which is, that it were [at all] possible, that [vihuelists] take to this method of performing the redoble, that through only the praise [for which I have for it] I wished to place here some guidelines, so that if anyone wished to possess knowledge of this method of redoble, in doing what I mention here, that his wish have a commencement[38]. It must be understood then, that within a [given] bar there should occur 8 quavers, the first should be played with the middle finger, which in Latin they call medius[39], the second note with the index finger, which in Latin is called index: and third one must play with finger that initiated the sequence[40]. And thusly, plucking one note with one finger, and another with the other, via this order one can play the 8 quavers, and as many more as you would like. For what must be understood regarding this [kind of] redoble, is, that one must strike the string in such an order, that the one finger follows the other. And I mean, that he who truly works at it will, when playing both redobles ascending as well as those played ascending, be able to utilize it, delighting himself with his work. And I dare to testify for that which I [myself] find challenging in order to have enough [skill] to achieve a very small part of it (i.e. play a small phrase employing the m i redoble)[41].

On playing with clarity

On top of this I will say, that of the things that must be pursued on this instrument with great study and care is playing with the greatest clarity that be possible in what one is playing. And so that one may in some way acquite this, I will not cease to mention what time and experience have taught me, and to that end I place the notices that follow. It must be noted then, that just like in the compostions as in the fantasies, occasionally four voiced consonances are present: among which, one of the strings [plucked] remains open, and if the said consonance is not played (i.e dampened) by the right hand with some [degree] of pulcrity and foresight, the string which was left open, causes a dissonance [on resonating] with the other fretted notes in their [respective] tablature numbers or notes[42]. And not only is this impure playing, but it even causes disgust to the ears. Let’s give an example. The first string is [played] open, the second string at the second fret, third string at the third fret, the fifth string open: these are four voices that form a perfect consonance[43]: but the fourth course [still] remains open here, which becomes, a [major] seventh with the C#, which is on the second fret. And it is clear, that whomsoever plays the aforementioned consonance with the right hand, is forced to pluck the fourth course with the thumb, which will produce the dissonance that I mentioned.

On playing with clarity.

The remedy for this is simple for anyone who should wish to use it. For whenever a consonance or something similar presents iteslf, the thumb that strikes the fifth course, which, at the same time of striking it, must leave it resting on the fourth course[44], the one I said was [played] open, in such a way that its sound not be a cause for disgust. And the same consonance occurs playing the open second course, both the third and fourth courses at the second fret, and the sixth string open[45]; these are four voices: the fifth course remains open, which becomes a major seventh in relation to the [major] third on the second fret[46]. I mean that on the occurrence of a similar consonance one must make use of the guidelines given, that the thumb which plucks the sixth course, after striking the string, must rest it upon the fifth course, in such a way that the four voices sound [out] with distinction, and clarity, without the major seventh impiding them. This will be understood as consonances which suffer on employing such a remedy: since the notes are semibreves, o minims. If they are figures of diminutive note values, it will be seen clearly that it is not my intention to deal with similar [figures].

¶ At the same time it must be noted that if this consonance presents itself, or one similar to it, [like at] the fifth string on the second fret, the fourth and third courses played open and the second string at the third fret: this is a minim note, followed by, the second fret of the third course and the second course played open, which is another minim. For this entire bar the [first] finger which sounds at the second fret [of the fifth course] must not be removed. This will be understood through, the sixth course at the second fret, the fourth played open and the third at the third fret. The second minim is [then] played, on the fifth course on the second fret, the [first] finger must not be removed from the sixth course, nor from the third course, until arriving at the bar with the consonances, which appears afterwards. This itself will be become clear in the [specific] places or similar consonances, whenever they should appear.

¶ in order to play with clarity, to have knowledge of the chords or frets, which are more convenient for the left hand [play] that the playing of them in different frets, or strings, not be an occasion the detain the consonance before time. For example. Take the fifth course at the third fret: the third course at the sixth fret, the second course on the fifth and the first on the third, suppose that playing this consonance which is a minim note, the note on the first [course] is sol, It is followed by a another minim figure, which is fa, which can be played, [on] the first course at the third fret: and in such a case it is clear, that the left hand leaves the consonances off beat, wishing to play such a figure at the aforementioned fret: where what results is lacking in both sound and consonance, and not playing with clarity nor perfection.

One must take note then, that the fa which I said to be played on the first fret of the first string must be played on the second fret of the sixth. And in this way the hand does not move, nor does it refrain from [playing] the notes that it is fretting, for an entire bar, until it proceeds with what follows it. Wishing to discuss all the consonances in which the guidelines already given must be learned, would seem to me [to be] orderly: may what has just been said suffice to he who astutely wishes to understand it, [for] he shall be able to consider [all of] what I just mentioned.

On the modes

At the same it is a useful and beneficial thing, to have in some way knowledge of the modes or frets which are often played on this instrument. And so this be better understood, there will be little need to mention that there are eight notes in a musical [scale][to play][47] and that they remain within the confines of four key signatures: now, this is known to everyone. And also that the mode may be [called] perfect, pluperfect, mixed or irregular. What I mean to say is that is does very little for our aims, since in those places in which it be fitting to consider it, quite enough has [already] been written by wise and learned men. I just mean to say that on this instrument there is no accepted nor indicated fret for any of the eight modes[48], because of it being so perfect, one may play any [of the modes] perfectly on any given [fret], since one has only to place a fret upon the note which he desires. The truth is on frets, there are some [notes] easier to play on than others. And those [things] which possess most difficulty, can be called accidentals, only for being difficult and infrequent, but not because in a [given] fret there be more perfection than in another, for on this instrument, as has been mentioned, perfection is found in every part, for any given thing that will be played upon it.

And because I mention above, that it was beneficial to have a certain knowledge of the modes, I wish to declare my intention for this, for I did not say without [due] cause, that one must in some way possess knowledge of it. Because he who must comprehend perfectly and completely any one of the eight modes, and make use of them on this instrument with true freedom and good spirit, that he learn by music[49], if he doesn’t know how: I mean, organum, counterpoint: and even to understand composition: since doubtless, lacking this true foundation, he shall not be able to handle any one of the eight modes.

Now music is a science, and such that its true artifice consists not only of good sense, but also true study, which in order to comprehend it, it is appropriate that one have it. And for this to lead one to attain a natural good, or delicate ingenuity, he shall give glory to God, our Lord who bestowed it upon him, and that he be certain that they have spent a good part of the day, but I shall still say that this alone is not enough to understand the true artifice of this science, unless this ingenuity be employed in the studying of it.

And because I understood that in order to possess some knowledge of the modes of which they are lacking, and of the clausulas that are contained therein, it was appropriate to demonstrate it on the instrument to those who don’t understand it in the book, it seemed to me a reasonable thing to put at the end of this book, eight tientos: within each one of those that are included in the natural clausulas and accidentals, that in each one of the eight modes they are often played in. I judged this document to be beneficial, because he who should wish to play a vocal [entabulation], or fantasy in the first mode, or in any of the eight, forging a beginning with these tientos, will be able to enter/happen upon the mode without causing disgust to the ear, as [we have] seen happens when suddenly one moves from one mode to another. These tientos are composed of nothing more than consonances, because as I have said, my intention is that one can recognize the notes of the mode, using the clausulas that are [contained] within it.

To the Reader.

Since the understandings and tastes of men (astute reader) be so many and so diverse, it should cause no surprise that their criteria/judgement be so as well. And as, carrying out in this book the law which must be withheld by all, judging each item that is placed in it, according to what his understanding told him, I wished to I wished to respond to all in as few words as I could, requesting mainly that my intention is taken into consideration, with which, the desire that I have had in serving those virtuously wish to exercise in this art: I mean that I was prompted to write [on] what I knew, and to teach what I had learned, and in the end to communicate that which [great goodness of God] and my continuous study and gave to me. And he who like a Christian should consider what I mention here, not being oblivious to the magnitude of the [burden] and work which will be presented on my behave, so as to give light to such a work, since I am deprived of it  since the first days of my infancy, I am quite certain that if I were to condemn something of which be contained in the book, what shall not be faulted in any way is my will, since so greatly has it desired to [be certain] that it should satisfy in everything, but if by chance my effort should be considered great, which as a recompense for my work, those moved by sentiments/feelings of charity find in this book something that be worthy of praise, I plead to them that they bestow the glory to God our Lord, from whose hand every perfect gift is given.

And if, as it has been said, the contrary be encountered, in such a way that it be worthy of reprehension, it may be attributed to myself as a mortal man and subject to misery. And because I know myself [to be] as such I am prepared emend [the text], as long as the request be justified, which [when] being requested of me, I will carry out in the days which God may be serviced [by] giving me life after having had one[50] what I mention here shall be printed and written here. Renown in music, or a place in it, Christian reader, I ask for nothing more, other than that through which our God and Lord be more served, and which the good and wise should wish to bestow upon me: to which [I say] may glory and praise be given to [him] forever without end. Amen.

†††

Declaration of the tablature.

¶ Since the knowledge of the tablature which is often used on this instrument (the vihuela) has been prudently and assuredly made understood, I am prompted to discuss the aforementioned; for those who are to use this book [should] have some knowledge of how the tablature should be understood: and it is thusly.

¶ Firstly one must know that these six lines that are figured here are the six courses that the vihuela has, counting from the sixth to the first, thusly:

¶ On these six strings are shown and indicated the tablature which is commonly used by those who count digits]. These represent the frets, counting from one to ten, except [this] last one which is a figure [written] thusly  that is called zero, and this equates to where the string be [played] open. For example:  in a way that these tablatures should be used so that one may know that the indicated string should be equivalent to a fret, playing it at that number, thusly:

¶ Furthermore it must be noted that wherever one should see a single tablature figure, it must be played as a single [note]: and [so] if two [figures], two [notes], and if all [strings], [then] all [six notes are to be played], the single ones being guided by the others towards the bottom, in such a way that (as I have mentioned) all the [numbers] that can be seen placed on top of each other, must be played simultaneously, and those which appear as single [notes], each one separately, [playing] them [with] the value of the [written] figure above them. For example:

¶ So, what pertains to the understanding of the tablature and awareness of it has now been discussed. There is [now] reason that we come to deal with the rhythm and tempo[51] with which one must play with, since it is such a necessary thing just like the others, so that what one plays stays in time with the rhythm. And coming to discuss that which I mention here, that is, that the rhythm [52]is a type of movement that is made by the feet and the hand[s], within which being [either] allegretto or lento is contained within a bar that consists of separate beats, one following the other.

And so as to have knowledge of this, on the six strings that are represented here, one shall see some lines that traverse [the strings] from top to bottom, and between the space that one [note] should have from the other, and the others in succession, a bar is formed, giving it the [same] value as the note stems written above it. And thusly being informed not to diverge from the rhythm, and tempo, with which all that is [contained] in this book in order to be a good player has been stated. Following the bar in its order one will not be able to err in what they should play. For example:

Here follow the six index tables of the six parts

of this book.

³³³³

---

[1] Job, 5,7: «Homo nascitur ad laborem, et avis ad volatum».

[2]  Fuenllana was born blind.

[3] i.e, a higher degree of clarity in not being long winded is understood here.

[4]  In his Laberynth of Fortune, from 1444, we find the following passage: «Demostróse Túbal, primero inventor/de cónsonas bozes e dulce armonía; /mostróse la farpa que Orpheo tañía/quando al infierno lo truxo el amor, /mostrósenos Fíliris el tañedor, /maestro de’Archiles en çitarizar, / aquél que por arte ferirr e domar / pudo a un Archiles, tan grand domador». N.B. for farpa,  lira is understood.

[5] Nescio.

[6] Cf. the Etymologies, book III.

[7] In latin, chorda. A lapsus from Fuenllana here, since the Latin cognate of the Greek «χορδή», is not actually «cor» but rather «hernia» («hira» also), both of these stemming from the same Proto-Indo-European root*ǵʰer-.  Now, «καρδία» is indeed a cognate of the Latin «cor», the two of these coming from the PIE root *ḱḗr. However, Fuenllana’s intention here was atleast clear; linking the vibration of the strings to that of the human heart.

[8] Text not very clear here.

[9] Nescio, but I found this as quoted by C.S Adler S.M Alder and A.P Friedman (1987) : “Walking about gently for a considerable time. The movement softens or relaxes the tissues. Fats of thin consistence, and the oils already named. Agreeable music― especially if it inclines one to sleep. Being occupied with something very engrossing removes the severity of pain. “Other means of allaying Pain”. I haven’t as yet found the Arabic or Latin source for this quote. I would believe most likely was taken from an oral source with respect to Fuenllana.  

[10] A reference to his blindness.

[11] Cf. Mat. 25, 14-30 The parabole of talents.

[12] i.e, referring to the delights of  honeycomb.

[13] by dúos, or duets, he refers to contrapuntal music comprised of only two voices, and not a piece for two vihuelas. 

[14] All pieces by Mateo Flecha el Viejo.

[15] scalic passage comprised usually of sixteenth notes, in this context the note values were played deliberately faster that the given compás or rhythm, to contrast with larger note groups. See the introduction to Milan’s El Maestro (1535-36). 

[16] i.e. the number that is coloured red, indicates the note most apt to be sung.

[17] In the original, «golpes» lit. strikes.

[18] The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as: “An early type of polyphonic music based on plainsong with an accompaniment sung below or above the melody”.

[19] i.e., there is a limit of difficulty with respect to what can tolerated or played by the left hand.

[20] That is, corresponding to a modern stringed instrument such as a guitar, the notes: D, A, D, F #,  i.e., a D major chord, although its true pitch in the mid 1500’s oscillated between an F up to an A pitch.

[21] F#.

[22] F, for «fácil» in Spanish.

[23] «reposado» in the Spanish text; basically lento.

[24] That is, that open strings possess more resonance than their fretted counterparts.

[25] The Oxford Companion to Music defines as: “a kind of ornamentation in which a is broken up by fast figuration”.

[26]  idem, clausula may mean both a: “concluding of a passage or the passage itself so concluded”,  and “a polyphonic composition based not on an entire chant, as was the case with organum, but on a short portion of one”.

[27] by «obra compuesta», Fuenllana means any vocal contrapuntal music current in the 16th century or earlier.

[28] Before the days of a “counterpoint teacher”, musicians of the renaissance, in particular the lutenists and vihuelists, learned counterpart and basic compositional craft from transcribing, sine fine, vocal pieces on to their respective instruments. A substantial percentage of all lute and vihuela repertoire consists of these vocal “intabulations”.

[29] i.e., F (fácil) for easy, and D (dificultoso) for difficult.

[30] The standard Italian language of today was almost universally known as Tuscan in Fuenllana’s time.

[31] Also known as a villanella.

[32] Which had, at the time, only four courses.

[33] Also aficionado in the Spanish, but it can also have a nuance of neophyte, or beginner.

[34] From the verb tentar, “to touch”, “to try out”, in concept it mostly corresponds to the Italian term ricercare.

[35] Lit. “Little finger”, to play with dedillo, is to pluck in both directions with the index finger, as if using a plectrum. It would make sense to etymologize this technique back to the oud players who used the risha, or péñola, a pen shaped plectrum, which was used with a rocking wrist movement, just like todays Metal guitarists, or mandolinists. This also explains the rise of the thumb under technique of the renaissances lutenists, basically using the thumb and index finger as a plectrum, as if a “phantom limbed” memory of their plectrum yielding, oud playing, Arab musical ancestors. The fact that Fuenllana mentions the front nail of the index finger coming in to contact with the string while plucking down, this suggests a more open right hand position for the nail to rub of the string, (if a thumb under technique were used, the flesh of the index finger will make the contact, not the nail) more akin to a Spanish Flamenco guitarist’s picado technique. See Mudarra’s Tres libros…, for notated examples of dedillo, which was only played when descending down through the strings, never ascending, for ascending “dos de (dos dedos)” was used, that is, alternating with the thumb and index finger. The technique at present, is not usually seen in vihuela performances.

[36] He means here, the front of the nail, on executing a down stroke with the index finger.

[37] Probably a reference to Italian lutenists living in Spain at the time, as their music was owned personally by many vihuelists. Luis de Milán used a few phrases taken directly from Da Milano’s lute books, in his own El Maestro of 1535-36. Milano’s Ricercare XVI uses a sequence rehashed by Milán at the beginning of his own book, both pieces incidentally in the key of A major and minor respectively.

[38] Essentially Fuenllana is [pleading] to future students that they adopt an index/middle finger approach to single notes. He didn’t have to wait long, as the baroque guitar later used this method for playing melodies, with the thumb being more interested in the diapason lower courses. It then was inherited by all who followed, like Tárrega, and then taken to its limit by the Andalusians (De Lucía) and other flamenco guitarists in the early to mid-20^th century. There may be an added nuance of cultural identity to his technical preference, as he may have possibly considered his way of playing to be uniquely «castizo» or Spanish, since he refers to the thumb under technique as being used by “foreigners” (Italians), which would imply not Spanish, although in areas of Spain under some Italian influence, such as Valencia, a thumb under technique was certainly known and probably used either exclusively or interchangeable by Milán and other vihuelists living in the area around Valencia, also possibly by Narváez.  

[39] An explicit reference to the order of plucking, Fuenllana favours an m i approach to playing single notes.

[40] That is, simply repeating the m i pattern.

[41] The sparse phrasing which Fuenllana uses here, makes the exact meaning of this sentence difficult to ascertain, he is perhaps implying that he himself had to work to develop the m i approach.

[42] Very interesting advice by Fuenllana, here he advises muting open strings with the right fingers that would sound unwanted harmonics in the context of the given piece or phrase. He doesn’t mention what finger of the right hand should do the muting, however. Perhaps he thought it too obvious to mention. Experimentation has suggested to me that the a finger of the right hand would be the most appropriate for this purpose. Fuenllana is obviously stating the importance of the result and not so much of the means.

[43] These notes on a Spanish guitar are, in descending order, E, C#, A, and the open A string, i.e. an A mayor chord.

[44] Basically, a thumb apoyando.

[45] An E major chord.

[46] i.e., the clash between the open “A” string and the “G#” on the second fret of the F# string. Fuenllana in fact names the intervals the wrong way round, saying that the “A” is the major seventh of the “G#”, and not vice versa. But his idea is understood nonetheless.

[47] Frets were made of gut at the time, and were tied around the neck of the vihuela. Saying that the key can be used by placing a fret upon it, applies placing it above the strings and not under them, a function similar to that of the capo, changing the pitch of the instrument as a result. Did Fuenllana perhaps only play one pitch of vihuela as his personal preference (perhaps a beloved instrument), and merely changed the key with a gut fret as opposed to just using a differently pitched instrument? Was the practice of placing gut frets placed above the strings (as opposed to underneath them) like a modern capo, already in existence? A history of the capo in Spain is in order I feel.

[48] That is, the notes of the frets don’t correspond to fixed pitches, like on an Organ, where middle C is always middle. This was four centuries before the use of Tuners, and nearly two centuries before even tuning forks, which didn’t appear until invented by John Shore in 1711. Vihuelistas had to simply intone the string, using experience as their guide, make sure it didn’t break and tediously place the gut frets beneath the strings to temper the instrument, or, as Fuenllana is implying here, above them, raising the pitch of the vihuela, thereby making an early form of the capo.

[49] Written music theory, as opposed to playing by ear.

[50] i.e., eternal life through his art.

[51] Throughout the course of his essay, Fuenllana uses “aire” to mean both “air”, as in the mood or character of the piece, and “tempo”, here he means the speed with which the music should be played at.

[52] More specifically, the beat itself.